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An elaboration on sample size determination for correlations based on effect sizes and confidence interval width: a guide for researchers
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Statistical Research Article An elaboration on sample size determination for correlations based on effect sizes and confidence interval width: a guide for researchers
Mohamad Adam Bujangorcid

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2024.49.e21
Published online: May 2, 2024

Clinical Research Centre, Sarawak General Hospital, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Correspondence to Mohamad Adam Bujang, PhD. Clinical Research Centre, Sarawak General Hospital, Jalan Tun Ahmad Zaidi Adruce, 93586 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. adam@crc.gov.my
Citation: Bujang MA. An elaboration on sample size determination for correlations based on effect sizes and confidence interval width: a guide for researchers. Restor Dent Endod 2024;49(2):e21.
• Received: October 11, 2023   • Accepted: January 4, 2024

Copyright © 2024. The Korean Academy of Conservative Dentistry

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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  • Objectives
    This paper aims to serve as a useful guide for sample size determination for various correlation analyses that are based on effect sizes and confidence interval width.
  • Materials and Methods
    Sample size determinations are calculated for Pearson’s correlation, Spearman’s rank correlation, and Kendall’s Tau-b correlation. Examples of sample size statements and their justification are also included.
  • Results
    Using the same effect sizes, there are differences between the sample size determination of the 3 statistical tests. Based on an empirical calculation, a minimum sample size of 149 is usually adequate for performing both parametric and non-parametric correlation analysis to determine at least a moderate to an excellent degree of correlation with acceptable confidence interval width.
  • Conclusions
    Determining data assumption(s) is one of the challenges to offering a valid technique to estimate the required sample size for correlation analyses. Sample size tables are provided and these will help researchers to estimate a minimum sample size requirement based on correlation analyses.
  • Keywords: Confidence interval; Correlation; Parametric and non-parametric; Sample size
Correlation analysis is a common statistical technique in most types of research. It requires 2 variables that are either expressed in a numerical form or measured on at least an ordinal scale. In other words, the correlation test aims to measure whether or not there is a correlation between the 2 variables, as well as the direction and magnitude (or strength) of the correlation. The correlation is denoted by the symbol r and its coefficient shall hold a value that can range from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to +1 (perfect positive correlation) where a correlation of 0 indicates the absence of a relationship between the 2 variables being studied [1].
There are 3 popular measures of correlation such as Pearson’s correlation, Kendall-Tau b correlation, and Spearman’s rank correlation. The important assumption for performing these correlation analyses is that the 2 values should be a related pair of values for each observation. The measurement scale of the data for conducting Pearson’s correlation and Spearman’s rank correlation analyses are the same, which is preferably in an interval or a ratio scale. Pearson’s correlation is a parametric test and therefore its analysis will require the fulfillment of the parametric assumptions. If any of these parametric assumptions have been violated, then it is recommended to use the non-parametric alternative to Pearson’s correlation, i.e., Spearman’s rank correlation instead [2].
Kendall-Tau b is also a non-parametric type of analysis that commands other special characteristics in the data pair whereby it is a type of correlation test that can only accept 2 variables that are being measured at least in an ordinal scale and also following a monotonicity pattern [3]. This means that there is a consistent direction of the relationship between the 2 variables in that when 1 variable goes up, the other goes up. In this case, a plot of the 2 variables would move consistently in the upward direction. The correlation can also be monotonic if when 1 variable goes up, the other goes down. Thus, the plot of the 2 variables would move consistently in the downward direction.
One of the common problems encountered by a researcher in designing a study involving correlation analysis is to determine its minimum required sample size. In the case of correlation analyses, the calculation allows the researcher to set any value for the effect size, which can range from extremely small (i.e. r = 0.1) to extremely large (i.e. r = 0.9). It is necessary to establish appropriate guidelines for sample size calculation and justification for these analyses to assist the researcher in making a prudent decision for sample size planning involving a correlation analysis. Therefore, this study aims to provide a useful guideline for sample size determination for conducting correlation analyses based on an estimation by the confidence interval. Although the sample size determination for correlations has always been facilitated by the use of appropriate statistical software and published sample size tables which are readily available in the existing literature, a list of useful guidelines does serve to assist the researchers in determining the minimum required sample size for their correlation studies [4,5,6].
Sample size formula
Sample size calculation was conducted for Pearson’s correlation, Spearman’s rank correlation, and Kendall’s Tau-b correlation. The calculation for these statistical analyses was based on a formula introduced in a previous study [4]. For all these calculations, the confidence interval is set at 95.0%. The target correlation coefficients are set at 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, and 0.9. Correspondingly, the precision of the 95% confidence interval of the correlation coefficient will be set by pre-specifying the widths of the confidence intervals to be 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5. A careful perusal followed by a thorough discussion of the above results shall form the basis for guiding a researcher in determining the minimum required sample size for their studies.
Software
The minimum sample size requirement was estimated by using PASS 2022 (NCSS LLC; Kaysville, UT, USA), Power Analysis and Sample Size Software. The PASS software is a commercial software that provides a list of tools for determining sample size requirements for thousands of statistical tests and confidence interval scenarios. Each sample size technique in this software has been carefully validated and substantiated by scientifically sound published articles [7].
A careful observation of the results has found that the sample size requirement increases for a smaller target correlation coefficient and also for a smaller or narrower width of the 95% confidence interval, both of which are set for the sample size calculation. Using the same effect sizes, the sample size calculation obtained from Spearman’s rank correlation shall yield the largest value in comparison to those values obtained from the other 2 statistical analyses. There are also several highly significant differences between the 3 different statistical analyses in their sample size determination (Table 1).
Table 1

Sample size calculation for Pearson’s, Kendall-Tau’s, and Spearman’s rank correlations based on 95% confidence interval (CI) width

Effect size Width Width for both sides 95% CI np nk ns diff.*
0.1 0.1 ± 0.05 0.050, 0.150 1,507 662 1,515 8
0.2† ± 0.10† 0.000, 0.200† 378† 168† 379† 1†
0.3† ± 0.15† −0.050, 0.250† 168† 77† 169† 1†
0.4† ± 0.20† −0.100, 0.300† 95† 45† 96† 1†
0.5† ± 0.25† −0.150, 0.350† 61† 30† 62† 1†
0.2 0.1 ± 0.05 0.150, 0.250 1,417 622 1,446 29
0.2 ± 0.10 0.100, 0.300 355 158 362 7
0.3 ± 0.15 0.050, 0.350 159 72 162 3
0.4† ± 0.20† 0.000, 0.400† 90† 42† 91† 1†
0.5† ± 0.25† −0.050, 0.450† 58† 28† 59† 1†
0.3 0.1 ± 0.05 0.250, 0.350 1,274 560 1,331 57
0.2 ± 0.10 0.200, 0.400 320 143 334 14
0.3 ± 0.15 0.150, 0.450 143 65 149 6
0.4 ± 0.20 0.100, 0.500 81 38 85 4
0.5 ± 0.25 0.050, 0.550 53 26 55 2
0.4 0.1 ± 0.05 0.350, 0.450 1,086 478 1,173 87
0.2 ± 0.10 0.300, 0.500 273 122 295 22
0.3 ± 0.15 0.250, 0.550 123 57 132 9
0.4 ± 0.20 0.200, 0.600 70 34 75 5
0.5 ± 0.25 0.150, 0.650 46 23 49 3
0.5 0.1 ± 0.05 0.450, 0.550 867 382 975 108
0.2 ± 0.10 0.400, 0.600 219 99 246 27
0.3 ± 0.15 0.350, 0.650 99 46 111 12
0.4 ± 0.20 0.300, 0.700 57 28 64 7
0.5 ± 0.25 0.250, 0.750 37 19 42 5
0.6 0.1 ± 0.05 0.550, 0.650 633 280 746 113
0.2 ± 0.10 0.500, 0.700 161 73 189 28
0.3 ± 0.15 0.450, 0.750 74 35 86 12
0.4 ± 0.20 0.400, 0.800 43 22 50 7
0.5 ± 0.25 0.350, 0.850 29 16 33 4
0.7 0.1 ± 0.05 0.650, 0.750 404 180 503 99
0.2 ± 0.10 0.600, 0.800 105 49 129 24
0.3 ± 0.15 0.550, 0.850 49 24 60 11
0.4 ± 0.20 0.500, 0.900 30 16 36 6
0.5 ± 0.25 0.450, 0.750 20 12 25 5
0.8 0.1 ± 0.05 0.750, 0.850 205 93 269 64
0.2 ± 0.10 0.700, 0.900 56 27 72 16
0.3 ± 0.15 0.650, 0.950 28 15 35 7
0.4 ± 0.20 0.600, 1.000 18 11 22 4
0.5‡ ± 0.25‡ 0.550, 1.000‡ 13‡ 9‡ 16‡ 3‡
0.9 0.1 ± 0.05 0.850, 0.950 62 30 86 24
0.2 ± 0.10 0.800, 1.000 20 12 27 7
0.3‡ ± 0.15‡ 0.750, 1.000‡ 12‡ 8‡ 16‡ 4‡
0.4‡ ± 0.20‡ 0.700, 1.000‡ 9‡ 7‡ 12‡ 3‡
0.5‡ ± 0.25‡ 0.650, 1.000‡ 8‡ 6‡ 10‡ 2‡
np, sample size for Pearson’s correlation; nk, sample size for Kendall Tau-b’s correlation; ns, sample size for Spearman’s correlation.
*diff. represents the difference between ns - np; †Lower bound with either zero or negative value; ‡Upper bound with more than 1.000.
By fixing the width of confidence interval at 0.3 and level of the confidence at 95.0%, the recommended sample size is between 12 (for rp = 0.9) to 143 (for rp = 0.3) for Pearson’s correlation, between 8 (for rk = 0.9) to 65 (for rk = 0.3) for Kendall’s Tau-b’s correlation, and between 16 (for rs = 0.9) to 149 (for rs = 0.3) for Spearman’s rank correlation. For a study that aims to achieve a target correlation with a high level of precision such as fixing its 95% confidence level width at 0.1, the recommended sample size requirement is between 62 (for r = 0.9) to 1274 (for r = 0.3) for Pearson’s correlation, and between 30 (for rk = 0.9) to 560 (for rk = 0.3) for Kendall’s Tau-b’s correlation. On the other hand, Spearman’s rank correlation is commanding the highest sample size requirement by necessitating a sample size of between 86 (for r = 0.9) to 1331 (for r = 0.3) (Table 1).
The results have indicated that some of the calculations have reported a lower bound for a 95% level of confidence such as at zero or even negative values, especially for those with very low target correlation coefficient values (i.e. 0.1 and 0.2). Therefore, it is not necessary to set a bigger width of 95% confidence interval for very low values of target correlation coefficient such as 0.1 and 0.2. This means that only a very narrow width of 0.1 will be sufficient for a low target correlation coefficient value of 0.1, and a width of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 will also be sufficient for a slightly higher target correlation coefficient value of 0.2.
On the other hand, it was found that some upper bound of 95% confidence intervals yielded a confidence level of more than 1.0, especially for a high target correlation coefficient value such as 0.8 and 0.9. Again, it is also not necessary to set a big width of 95% confidence interval for a high target correlation coefficient value of 0.8 and 0.9. Hence, only a narrow width of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 will be required for a high target correlation coefficient value of 0.8. Likewise, an even narrower width of 0.1 and 0.2 will be required for a higher target correlation coefficient value of 0.9. Hence, it is advisable to take such measures when adopting such guidelines for the determination of sample size requirements for correlation tests to avoid erroneously deciding upon an extremely small sample size for our study (Table 1).
This paper discusses the concept and guidelines for sample size determination for correlation analyses specifically based on a specific method. Although a theory regarding the sample size calculation technique that was based on confidence interval width for correlation analyses has already been published, this paper emphasizes further elaboration in the practices and step-by-step guidelines on how to conduct sample size planning for correlation analyses. These discussions are necessary to strengthen the understanding regarding sample size among the researchers who are the majority without adequate knowledge of statistics. Literature has proven that such discussion papers are very useful for researchers [8,9]. The discussion is divided into several sections to elaborate on the various aspects of the sample size determination for performing correlation analyses, as well as to raise any issues of concern in this area.
Advantage of performing a sample size calculation based on precision (via a confidence interval)
There is a fundamental difference between sample size calculation based on hypothesis testing and the same calculation based on a 95% confidence interval. Based on the calculation done by a previous study involving hypothesis testing, the researcher will not be able to determine the level of accuracy of the correlation coefficients based on the sample size alone. Instead, if the sample size calculation is derived from an estimation obtained from the confidence interval of the target correlation coefficient value, then it will enable the researcher to impose clear expectations on its target value [10]. For example, if a study attempts to target a correlation coefficient of 0.8 by conducting the Pearson’s correlation, then the researcher will know that to prove the truth of such a high level of correlation with high accuracy such as between 0.75 to 0.85, a minimum sample size of 205 subjects will be required. If the researcher manages to recruit only 20 subjects, he/she will know that the correlation coefficients in the target population will probably range from 0.45 to 0.75. In other words, as the accuracy for the derived value of the correlation coefficient will probably range from low to moderate only, therefore he/she will not be able to confidently determine exactly what is the magnitude of the correlation.
Besides that, the calculation of the correlation coefficient based on a 95% confidence interval will also provide a hint for setting an appropriate width of the confidence interval for sample size calculation. For example, setting the confidence interval’s width of 0.3 for a very low target correlation coefficient value of 0.1 is unnecessary since this will yield a lower bound which indicates a too low level of confidence, which will probably range from 0 to negative values. Likewise, it will also not be necessary to set a bigger width of the confidence interval to reduce the sample size requirement if the resulting calculation produces too low a level of confidence with 0 or even negative values for its lower bound of the confidence interval, or produces too high a level of confidence with more than 1.0 for its upper bound of the confidence interval.
A comparison between sample size calculation based on parametric versus non-parametric
This study has prepared 3 sample size tables for use in guiding the conduct of both parametric and non-parametric statistical analyses for correlation. Among the 3 statistical analyses, namely: Pearson’s correlation, Spearman’s rank correlation, and Kendall’s Tau-b correlation, it was found that the sample size requirement for performing Kendall’s Tau-b correlation is the smallest. Results of this study have also shown that based on the same effect size, Spearman’s rank correlation will usually yield a larger sample size requirement than Pearson’s correlation. Bearing in mind that this difference can often be considerably large, it is therefore necessary to first check the validity of these assumptions in the data involved such as from the literature, before proceeding to the sample size estimation. Without giving due consideration to these assumptions, the sample size calculation may not be valid since it is always possible for a study to be rendered underpowered subsequently, and hence valid conclusions cannot be drawn from its findings.
Guideline for assessing the sample size requirement based on the predetermined effect size and width of 95% confidence interval
Using sample size tables is one of the smartest and easiest ways to estimate the minimum sample size requirement [8,9]. Such sample size tables shall facilitate a researcher in deciding the minimum required sample size without the need to identify the correct formula for sample size calculation which is based on a specific statistical analysis. Nevertheless, it is still recommended to formulate a list of very useful guidelines to assist a researcher in making the correct decision for sample size determination when planning a correlation study. In the case of correlation, the calculation shall allow the researchers to pre-specify any values of its effect size which can range from an extremely small value (i.e. r = 0.1) to an extremely large value (i.e. r = 0.9). In fulfillment of this aim, this study thereby proposes and recommends a simplified yet useful guideline for which a small, moderate, or high value of the effect size has been predetermined in a study involving the correlation coefficient.
It is very rare for a researcher to purposefully select a small effect size (i.e. effect size = 0.1 or 0.2) for a study. One of the reasons for setting a smaller effect size is to merely prove that the 2 variables have either very low or almost 0 correlation. In the multiple regression model, one of the assumptions is to ensure all the predictors have no strong correlation with each other [11,12]. One of the ways to confirm this is by measuring the level of correlation between the 2 variables. By convention, it can be assumed that 2 variables have a weak correlation when the correlation between them is less than 0.3 since less than 0.3 indicates a low correlation [13]. On the other hand, other studies can also opt to use a much bigger cut-off such as a correlation coefficient of less than 0.8 to indicate no strong correlation [12,14]. Another possible scenario is when the researcher aims to determine which predictors (or variables) should be regarded as not important or less important. In some cases, proving that a variable does not correlate with another variable can also be considered an important finding [15,16].
Conventionally, most research studies aim to prove that there is a correlation between 2 variables. In this case, the ideal effect size is 0.3 since a cut-off value of 0.3 and above shall indicate that the correlation is sizeable or of a significant magnitude [13]. Before conducting an analysis, a researcher usually will not know the exact value of the effect size which a study can realistically achieve since its true value can be anything from 0.3 and above. However, for sample size calculation, it is often recommended to set an effect size of 0.3 because by doing so, the sample size calculation can yield a sufficiently large sample size requirement which can detect at least a moderate to high effect size.
Another rare condition is when the researcher is required to set an excellent effect size for a study, which can often be particularly high (i.e. effect size = 0.8 or 0.9). However, the researcher shall need to exercise additional caution since an unusually high effect size will also yield a very low sample size requirement [4,5,6]. Normally, a smaller sample size requirement is often preferable by many researchers since it will save cost and time but it is also possible for a researcher to be exposed to a risk of obtaining insignificant results of the study if it is severely underpowered. Anyway, we must always bear in mind there are always highly relevant and/or valid reasons for setting a very high effect size when conducting correlation studies. One of the plausible reasons is to establish an exceptionally high level of dependence between the 2 variables, namely the predictor and outcome variables. In this circumstance, the aim is not to check for the fulfillment of the assumption of independence for the regression model but instead to determine a high-accuracy model to enable it to predict an outcome [17].
Sample size statement
This study proposes the formulation of sample size statements based on the recommendation from a previous study [18]. Bujang in his paper recommends 5 steps (Step 1: To understand the objective of a study, Step 2: To choose the appropriate statistical analysis, Step 3: To estimate or calculate the sample size, Step 4: To make allowances to cater for the possibility of non-response, Step 5: To write down a sample size statement for its sample size determination. However, reporting type I error and power of the study is not necessary in this case since sample size calculation is based on the 95% confidence interval width and assumed correlation coefficient.
The examples are as follows:

Sample size statement based on Pearson’s correlation

This study aims to determine a correlation between variable A and variable B. Both variables are measured at least on an interval scale and parametric assumptions are assumed. Therefore, Pearson’s correlation test will be used for analysis. By setting the correlation coefficient at 0.7 with a 95% confidence interval of width 0.3 (0.55, 0.85), therefore the minimum required sample size is 49. To incorporate a non-response rate of 20.0%, a minimum sample size of 62 respondents will be required.

Sample size statement based on Spearman’s rank correlation

This study aims to determine a correlation between variable C and variable D. Both variables are measured at least on an interval scale. Based on the findings of a previous study, the data did not fulfill the assumptions necessary for performing a parametric test (state the reference). Therefore, Spearman’s rank correlation test will be used for its analysis. By setting the correlation coefficient at 0.7 with a 95% confidence interval of width 0.3 (0.55, 0.85), therefore the minimum required sample size is 60. To incorporate a non-response rate of 20.0%, a minimum sample size of 75 respondents will be required.

Sample size statement based on Kendall’s Tau correlation

This study aims to determine a correlation between variable E and variable F. Both variables are measured on an ordinal scale. Based on the findings of a previous study, the pattern correlation of the 2 variables had shown a monotonic pattern (state the reference). Therefore, Kendall’s Tau-b correlation test will be used for analysis. By setting the correlation coefficient at 0.7 with a 95% confidence interval of width 0.3 (0.55, 0.85), therefore the minimum required sample size is 24. To incorporate a non-response rate of 20.0%, a minimum sample size of 30 respondents will be required.
This paper proposes and recommends a simplified yet highly useful guide to determine the sample size requirements for correlation analyses based on the estimation by a 95% confidence interval. Different target effect sizes can be used depending on a specific scenario. In general, a minimum sample size of 149 is usually deemed adequate for performing both parametric and non-parametric correlation analyses to establish at least a moderate to excellent level of correlation. It must be noted that each statistical analysis will command a different sample size requirement even for the same effect size. Therefore, it is always recommended to check for the validity of the necessary assumptions in the data involved by ensuring they have fulfilled all the necessary assumptions to perform a particular statistical analysis, to determine which types of statistical analysis shall provide the scientifically valid approach for estimating the minimum sample size required for the study.
We thank the Director General Ministry of Health for permitting us to publish the paper.

Conflict of Interest: No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

Author Contributions:

  • Conceptualization: Bujang MA.

  • Data curation: Bujang MA.

  • Formal analysis: Bujang MA.

  • Funding acquisition: Bujang MA.

  • Investigation: Bujang MA.

  • Methodology: Bujang MA.

  • Project administration: Bujang MA.

  • Resources: Bujang MA.

  • Software: Bujang MA.

  • Supervision: Bujang MA.

  • Validation: Bujang MA.

  • Visualization: Bujang MA.

  • Writing - original draft: Bujang MA.

  • Writing - review & editing: Bujang MA.

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        An elaboration on sample size determination for correlations based on effect sizes and confidence interval width: a guide for researchers
        Restor Dent Endod. 2024;49(2):e21  Published online May 2, 2024
        DOI: https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2024.49.e21
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      An elaboration on sample size determination for correlations based on effect sizes and confidence interval width: a guide for researchers
      An elaboration on sample size determination for correlations based on effect sizes and confidence interval width: a guide for researchers

      Sample size calculation for Pearson’s, Kendall-Tau’s, and Spearman’s rank correlations based on 95% confidence interval (CI) width

      Effect sizeWidthWidth for both sides95% CInp nk ns diff.*
      0.10.1± 0.050.050, 0.1501,5076621,5158
      0.2† ± 0.10† 0.000, 0.200† 378† 168† 379† 1†
      0.3† ± 0.15† −0.050, 0.250† 168† 77† 169† 1†
      0.4† ± 0.20† −0.100, 0.300† 95† 45† 96† 1†
      0.5† ± 0.25† −0.150, 0.350† 61† 30† 62† 1†
      0.20.1± 0.050.150, 0.2501,4176221,44629
      0.2± 0.100.100, 0.3003551583627
      0.3± 0.150.050, 0.350159721623
      0.4† ± 0.20† 0.000, 0.400† 90† 42† 91† 1†
      0.5† ± 0.25† −0.050, 0.450† 58† 28† 59† 1†
      0.30.1± 0.050.250, 0.3501,2745601,33157
      0.2± 0.100.200, 0.40032014333414
      0.3± 0.150.150, 0.450143651496
      0.4± 0.200.100, 0.5008138854
      0.5± 0.250.050, 0.5505326552
      0.40.1± 0.050.350, 0.4501,0864781,17387
      0.2± 0.100.300, 0.50027312229522
      0.3± 0.150.250, 0.550123571329
      0.4± 0.200.200, 0.6007034755
      0.5± 0.250.150, 0.6504623493
      0.50.1± 0.050.450, 0.550867382975108
      0.2± 0.100.400, 0.6002199924627
      0.3± 0.150.350, 0.650994611112
      0.4± 0.200.300, 0.7005728647
      0.5± 0.250.250, 0.7503719425
      0.60.1± 0.050.550, 0.650633280746113
      0.2± 0.100.500, 0.7001617318928
      0.3± 0.150.450, 0.75074358612
      0.4± 0.200.400, 0.8004322507
      0.5± 0.250.350, 0.8502916334
      0.70.1± 0.050.650, 0.75040418050399
      0.2± 0.100.600, 0.8001054912924
      0.3± 0.150.550, 0.85049246011
      0.4± 0.200.500, 0.9003016366
      0.5± 0.250.450, 0.7502012255
      0.80.1± 0.050.750, 0.8502059326964
      0.2± 0.100.700, 0.90056277216
      0.3± 0.150.650, 0.9502815357
      0.4± 0.200.600, 1.0001811224
      0.5‡ ± 0.25‡ 0.550, 1.000‡ 13‡ 9‡ 16‡ 3‡
      0.90.1± 0.050.850, 0.95062308624
      0.2± 0.100.800, 1.0002012277
      0.3‡ ± 0.15‡ 0.750, 1.000‡ 12‡ 8‡ 16‡ 4‡
      0.4‡ ± 0.20‡ 0.700, 1.000‡ 9‡ 7‡ 12‡ 3‡
      0.5‡ ± 0.25‡ 0.650, 1.000‡ 8‡ 6‡ 10‡ 2‡

      np, sample size for Pearson’s correlation; nk, sample size for Kendall Tau-b’s correlation; ns, sample size for Spearman’s correlation.

      *diff. represents the difference between ns - np; †Lower bound with either zero or negative value; ‡Upper bound with more than 1.000.
      Table 1 Sample size calculation for Pearson’s, Kendall-Tau’s, and Spearman’s rank correlations based on 95% confidence interval (CI) width

      np, sample size for Pearson’s correlation; nk, sample size for Kendall Tau-b’s correlation; ns, sample size for Spearman’s correlation.

      *diff. represents the difference between ns - np; †Lower bound with either zero or negative value; ‡Upper bound with more than 1.000.

      Table 1

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